The Edo period (江戸時代, Edo jidai?), or Tokugawa period (徳川時代, Tokugawa jidai?), is a division of Japanese history The history of Japan comprises the history of the islands of Japan and the Japanese people; spanning the ancient history of the region to the modern history of Japan as a nation state. The first known written reference to Japan is in the brief information given in Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of Chinese historical texts, in the 1st century running from 1603 to 1868 and is the premodern era. The period marks the governance of the Edo From the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu''s headquarters at Edo, Kyoto remained merely the formal capital of the country. The de facto capital was now Edo, because it was the center of real political power. Edo consequently rapidly grew from what had been a small, virtually unknown fishing village in 1457 to a metropolis with an estimated or Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu and the Edo bakufu (江戸幕府?), was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which now is called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from, which was officially established in 1603 by the first Edo shogun Shogun listen (help·info) (literally, "a commander of a force") is a military rank and historical title for (in most cases) hereditary military dictator of Japan. The modern rank is equivalent to a Generalissimo. Although the original meaning of "shogun" is simply "a general", as a title, it is used as the short form Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan which ruled from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Ieyasu seized power in 1600, received appointment as shogun in 1603, abdicated from office in 1605, but remained in power until his death in 1616. His given name is sometimes. The period ended with the Meiji Restoration The Meiji Restoration , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution or Renewal, restored imperial rule to Japan in 1867. The Restoration was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure. It occurred in the later half of the 19th century, a period that spans both the late Edo period (often called Late, the restoration of imperial The Empire of Japan was a Japanese political entity that existed during the period from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until its defeat in World War II in 1945 rule Governance is the activity of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists either of a separate process or of a specific part of management or leadership processes. Sometimes people set up a government to administer these processes and systems by the 15th and last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu Tokugawa Yoshinobu (also known as Keiki), October 28, 1837–November 22, 1913) was the 15th and last shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan. He was part of a movement which aimed to reform the aging shogunate, but was ultimately unsuccessful. After resigning in late 1867, he went into retirement, and largely avoided the public eye for the rest. The Edo period is also known as the beginning of the early modern period of Japan.

Contents

Rule of shogun and daimyo

Main article: Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu and the Edo bakufu (江戸幕府?), was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which now is called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan which ruled from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Ieyasu seized power in 1600, received appointment as shogun in 1603, abdicated from office in 1605, but remained in power until his death in 1616. His given name is sometimes, first shogun Shogun listen (help·info) (literally, "a commander of a force") is a military rank and historical title for (in most cases) hereditary military dictator of Japan. The modern rank is equivalent to a Generalissimo. Although the original meaning of "shogun" is simply "a general", as a title, it is used as the short form of the Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu and the Edo bakufu (江戸幕府?), was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which now is called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from

An evolution took place in the centuries from the time of the Kamakura bakufu The Kamakura shogunate was a military dictatorship in Japan headed by the shoguns from 1185 (or 1192, when it was formally recognized) to 1333. It was based in Kamakura. The Kamakura period draws its name from the capital of the shogunate, which co-existed in equilibrium with the imperial court, to the Tokugawa The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa bakufu and the Edo bakufu (江戸幕府?), was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which now is called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from, when the bushi Samurai, is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau. In both countries the terms were became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer Edwin Oldfather Reischauer was the leading U.S. educator and noted scholar of the history and culture of Japan, and of East Asia. From 1961–66, he was the U.S. ambassador to Japan called a "centralized feudal Feudalism is a political and military system between a feudal aristocracy , and his vassals. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval European political system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. Although" form of government. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan which ruled from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Ieyasu seized power in 1600, received appointment as shogun in 1603, abdicated from office in 1605, but remained in power until his death in 1616. His given name is sometimes, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobunaga (織田 信長, Oda Nobunaga ?, June 23, 1534 – June 21, 1582) was the initiator of the unification of Japan under the rule of the Shogun in the late Sixteenth Century, a rule that ended only with the opening of Japan to the Western world in 1868. He was also a major daimyo during the Sengoku period of Japanese history. His opus was and Toyotomi Hideyoshi Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a daimyo in the Sengoku period who unified the political factions of Japan. He succeeded his former liege lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Sengoku period. The period of his rule is often called the Momoyama period, named after Hideyoshi's castle. He is noted for a number of cultural legacies, including the. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō The Kantō region is a geographical area of Honshū, the largest island of Japan. The region includes the Greater Tokyo Area and encompasses seven prefectures: Gunma, Tochigi, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tokyo, Chiba, and Kanagawa. Within its boundaries, slightly more than 40 percent of the land area is the Kantō Plain. The rest consists of the hills and area. He maintained 2.5 million koku The koku is a Japanese unit of volume, equal to ten cubic shaku. In this definition, 3.5937 koku equal one cubic metre, i.e. 1 koku is approximately 278.3 litres. The koku was originally defined as a quantity of rice, historically defined as enough rice to feed one person for one year (one masu is enough rice to feed a person for one day). A koku of land, new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo Tokyo , officially Tokyo Metropolis (東京都, Tōkyō-to?), is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. It is located on the eastern side of the main island Honshū and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture (Tokyo-fu) and the city of Tokyo. Tokyo is the), and also had an additional two million koku of land and thirty-eight vassals A vassal, in the terminology that preceded and accompanied the feudalism of medieval Europe, is one who enters into mutual obligations with a monarch, usually of military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain guarantees, which came to include the terrain held as a fief. By analogy it is applied to similar systems in other feudal under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family.

Ieyasu's victory over the western daimyo Daimyo (大名, Daimyō?, Pronunciation ) is a generic term referring to the powerful territorial lord in premodern Japan who ruled most of the country from their vast, hereditary land holdings. In the term, "dai" (大?) literally means "large", and "myō" stands for myōden (名田?), meaning private land at the Battle of Sekigahara The Battle of Sekigahara , popularly known as the Realm Divide (天下分け目の戦い, Tenka Wakeme no Tatakai?), was a decisive battle on October 21, 1600 (Keichō 5, 15th day of the 9th month) which cleared the path to the Shogunate for Tokugawa Ieyasu. Though it would take three more years for Ieyasu to consolidate his position of power over (October 21, 1600, or in the Japanese calendar on the 15th day of the ninth month of the fifth year of the Keichō Keichō was a Japanese era name (年号,, nengō,?, lit. "year name") after Bunroku and before Genna. This period spanned from October 1596 to July 1615. The reigning emperors were Go-Yōzei-tennō (後陽成天皇?) and Go-Mizunoo-tennō (後水尾天皇?) era) gave him virtual control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyo houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi Originating in Owari Province, the Toyotomi clan served as retainers to the Oda clan throughout 16th-century Japan's Sengoku period, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyo, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada Tokugawa Hidetada was the second shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty, who ruled from 1605 until his abdication in 1623. He was the third son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun of the Tokugawa bakufu (1579–1632) as shogun and himself as retired shogun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka Osaka listen (help·info) is a city in the Kansai region of Japan's main island of Honshū, the designated city under the Local Autonomy Law, the capital city of Osaka Prefecture and also the heart of Greater Osaka Area. Located at the mouth of the Yodo River on Osaka Bay. Osaka is the third largest city by population after Tokyo and Yokohama was destroyed by the Tokugawa army.

The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 250 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu Shogun listen (help·info) (literally, "a commander of a force") is a military rank and historical title for (in most cases) hereditary military dictator of Japan. The modern rank is equivalent to a Generalissimo. Although the original meaning of "shogun" is simply "a general", as a title, it is used as the short form and han The han , or domains, were the fiefs of feudal lords of Japan that were created by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and existed until their abolition in 1871, three years after the Meiji Restoration. The number of han varied; typically, there were around 300 han in the Edo period. Most were led by a daimyo whose territory had an agricultural assessment of 10,000 (domains) to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyo had regional authority. This represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly seven million koku, control of the most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues.

A yagura, or turret, at Edo Castle Edo Castle , also known as Chiyoda Castle (千代田城, Chiyoda-jō?), is a flatland castle that was built in 1457 by Ōta Dōkan. It is located in Chiyoda in Tokyo, then known as Edo, Toshima District, Musashi Province. Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate here. It was the residence of the shogun and location of the shogunate, and in Tokyo.

The feudal Feudalism is a political and military system between a feudal aristocracy , and his vassals. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval European political system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. Although hierarchy was completed by the various classes of daimyo. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan The shinpan daimyo were certain relatives of the Tokugawa shoguns of Japan. While all shinpan were relatives of the shogun, not all relatives of the shogun were shinpan; an example of this is the Matsudaira clan of the Okutono Domain. The shinpan lords were also known as kamon daimyō (家門大名) — non-daimyo relatives, such as the Gosankyō, or "related houses". They were twenty-three daimyo on the borders of Tokugawa lands, daimyo all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of the hierarchy were the fudai Fudai daimyo was a class of daimyo who were hereditary vassals of the Tokugawa in Edo period Japan. It was primarily the fudai who filled the ranks of the Tokugawa administration, or "house daimyo", rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the eighteenth century, 145 fudai controlled such smaller han, the greatest assessed at 250,000 koku. Members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the third group, the tozama A Tozama daimyo was a daimyo who was considered an outsider by the rulers of Japan. The term came into use in the Kamakura period and continued until the end of the Edo period (outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly ten million koku of productive land. Because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyo, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions.

The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor The Emperor of Japan is the symbol of the state and of the unity of the Japanese people. He is the head of the Japanese Imperial Family. He is also the highest authority of the Shinto religion. Under Japan's present constitution, the Emperor is the "symbol of the state and the unity of the people," and is a ceremonial figurehead in a, the court, all daimyo and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the shogun, who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.

A code of laws was established to regulate the daimyo houses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, types of weapons and numbers of troops allowed; required feudal lords to reside in Edo every other year (the sankin kōtai Sankin kōtai was a policy of the shogunate during most of the Edo period of Japanese history. The purpose was to control the daimyo. In adopting the policy, the shogunate was continuing and refining similar policies of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In 1635, a law required sankin kōtai, which was already an established custom. The law remained in force system); prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; proscribed Christianity; restricted castles to one per domain (han The han , or domains, were the fiefs of feudal lords of Japan that were created by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and existed until their abolition in 1871, three years after the Meiji Restoration. The number of han varied; typically, there were around 300 han in the Edo period. Most were led by a daimyo whose territory had an agricultural assessment of 10,000) and stipulated that bakufu regulations were the national law. Although the daimyo were not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions for military and logistical support and for such public works projects as castles, roads, bridges and palaces. The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of the daimyo, thus weakening their threat to the central administration. The han, once military-centered domains, became mere local administrative units. The daimyo did have full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers, bureaucrats A bureaucrat is a member of a bureaucracy and can comprise the administration of any organization of any size, though the term usually connotes someone within an institution of a government or corporation. Bureaucrat jobs were often "desk jobs" , though the modern bureaucrat may be found "in the field" as well as in an office and commoners. Loyalty was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms.

From openness to seclusion

Main article: Sakoku Sakoku was the foreign relations policy of Japan under which no foreigner could enter nor could any Japanese leave the country on penalty of death. The policy was enacted by the Tokugawa shogunate under Tokugawa Iemitsu through a number of edicts and policies from 1633-1639 and remained in effect until 1853 with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Hasekura Tsunenaga Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga (Japanese: 支倉六右衛門常長, also spelled Faxecura Rocuyemon in period European sources, reflecting the contemporary pronunciation of Japanese) was a Japanese samurai and retainer of Date Masamune, the daimyo of Sendai, a Samurai Samurai, is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau. In both countries the terms were under the Date clan The Date clan was a lineage of daimyo who controlled northern Japan (the Tōhoku region) in the late 16th century and into the Edo period. Their most famous member was Date Masamune, who established the family's power by avenging his father's death and through support of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Japan's first official ambassador to the Americas and Europe, in 1615. View of Dejima Dejima , was a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki that was a Dutch trading post during Japan's self-imposed isolation (sakoku) of the Edo period, from 1641 until 1853 island as a Dutch trading post in Nagasaki Nagasaki ( listen (help·info)) is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū in Japan. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century. It was formerly part of Nishisonogi District. It was a center of Portuguese and European influence in the 16th through 19th centuries. Nagasaki was home to a, 1897

Like Hideyoshi, Ieyasu encouraged foreign trade but also was suspicious of outsiders. He wanted to make Edo a major port, but once he learned that the Europeans favored ports in Kyūshū Kyūshū or Kyushu is the third largest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternate ancient names include Kyūkoku (九国 Nine States), Chinzei (鎮西 West of the Pacified Area), and Tsukushi-no-shima (筑紫島 Island of Tsukushi). The historical regional name Saikaidō (西海道 West Sea Circuit) referred to and that China had rejected his plans for official trade, he moved to control existing trade and allowed only certain ports to handle specific kinds of commodities.

The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period The Nanban trade or the Nanban trade period (南蛮貿易時代, Nanban bōeki jidai?, "Southern barbarian trade period") in Japanese history extends from the arrival of the first Europeans to Japan in 1543, to their near-total exclusion from the archipelago in 1641, under the promulgation of the "Sakoku" Seclusion Edicts during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built her first ocean-going Western-style warships, such as the San Juan Bautista, a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas and then to Europe. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, used those ships throughout Asia.

The "Christian problem" was, in effect, a problem of controlling both the Christian daimyo in Kyūshū and their trade with the Europeans. By 1612, the shogun's retainers and residents of Tokugawa lands had been ordered to forswear Christianity. More restrictions came in 1616 (the restriction of foreign trade to Nagasaki and Hirado, an island northwest of Kyūshū), 1622 (the execution of 120 missionaries and converts), 1624 (the expulsion of the Spanish), and 1629 (the execution of thousands of Christians). Finally, the Closed Country Edict of 1635 prohibited any Japanese from traveling outside Japan or, if someone left, from ever returning. In 1636 the Dutch were restricted to Dejima, a small artificial island—and thus, not true Japanese soil—in Nagasaki's harbor.

The shogunate perceived Catholic Christianity to be an extremely destabilizing factor, leading to the persecution of Catholicism. The Shimabara Rebellion of 1637–38, in which discontented Catholic Christian samurai and peasants rebelled against the bakufu—and Edo called in Dutch ships to bombard the rebel stronghold—marked the end of the Christian movement, although some Catholic Christians survived by going underground, the so-called Kakure Kirishitan. Soon thereafter, the Portuguese were permanently expelled, members of the Portuguese diplomatic mission were executed, all subjects were ordered to register at a Buddhist or Shinto temple, and the Dutch and Chinese were restricted, respectively, to Dejima and to a special quarter in Nagasaki. Besides small trade of some outer daimyo with Korea and the Ryukyu Islands, to the southwest of Japan's main islands, by 1641, foreign contacts were limited by the policy of sakoku to Nagasaki.

By 1650, Christianity was almost completely eradicated, and external political, economic and religious influence on Japan became quite limited. Only China, the Dutch East India Company, and for a short period, the English, enjoyed the right to visit Japan during this period, for commercial purposes only, and they were restricted to the Dejima port in Nagasaki. Other Europeans who landed on Japanese shores were put to death without trial.

Society

Main article: Edo society Matsumoto Castle in Nagano Prefecture, a National Treasure.

After a long period of inner conflict, the first goal of the newly established Tokugawa government was to pacify the country. It created a balance of power that remained (fairly) stable for the next 250 years, influenced by Confucian principles of social order. Most samurai lost their direct possession of the land: all land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the about 300 daimyo. The samurai had a choice: Give up their sword and become peasants, or move to the city of their feudal lord and become a paid retainer. Only a few land samurai remained in the border provinces of the north, or as direct vassals of the shogun, the 5,000 so-called hatamoto. The daimyo were put under tight control of the shogunate. Their families had to reside in Edo; the daimyo themselves had to reside in Edo for one year and in their province (han) for the next. This system was called sankin kōtai.

During the Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shogun and daimyo. Below them the population was divided into four classes in a system known as mibunsei (身分制): the samurai on top (about 5% of the population) and the peasants (more than 80% of the population) on the second level. Below the peasants were the craftsmen, and even below them, on the fourth level, were the merchants.[1] Only the peasants lived in the rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities that were built around the daimyo's castles, each restricted to their own quarter.

Outside the four classes were the so-called eta and hinin, those whose professions broke the taboos of Buddhism. Eta were butchers, tanners and undertakers. Hinin served as town guards, street cleaners and executioners. Other outsiders included the beggars, entertainers, and prostitutes. The word eta literally translates to "filthy" and hinin to "non-humans", a thorough reflection of the attitude held by other classes that the eta and hinin were not even people. Hinin were only allowed inside a special quarter of the city. The actors usually travelled in groups from one village to another, performing in each city then moving to the next. Sometimes eta villages were not even printed on official maps.

The individual had no legal rights in Tokugawa Japan. The family was the smallest legal entity, and the maintenance of family status and privileges was of great importance at all levels of society. For example, the Edo period penal laws prescribed "non-free labor" or slavery for the immediate family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696.[2]

Economic development

Terakoya, private educational school

The Edo period bequeathed a vital commercial sector in burgeoning urban centers, a relatively well-educated elite, a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads.

Economic development during the Tokugawa period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.

Tokugawa coinage: Ōban, Koban, Ichibuban (1601-1695).

By the mid-eighteenth century, Edo had a population of more than one million, and Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Japan had almost zero population growth between the 1720s and 1820s, often attributed to lower birth rates in response to widespread famine, but some historians have presented different theories, such as a high rate of infanticide artificially controlling population.[3] Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods.

Rice was the base of the economy, as the daimyo collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, about 40% of the harvest. The rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. To raise money, the daimyo used forward contracts to sell rice that was not even harvested yet. These contracts were similar to modern futures trading.

It was during the Edo period that Japan developed an advanced forest management policy. Increased demand for timber resources for construction, shipbuilding and fuel had led to widespread deforestation, which resulted in forest fires, floods and soil erosion. In response the shogun, beginning around 1666, instituted a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. The policy mandated that only the shogun and daimyo could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry.[4]

Artistic and intellectual development

Wadokei, Japanese-made clockwatch, 18th century.

During the period, Japan progressively studied Western sciences and techniques (called rangaku, literally "Dutch studies") through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima. The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, or wadokei, inspired by Western techniques.

The flourishing of Neo-Confucianism was the major intellectual development of the Tokugawa period. Confucian studies had long been kept active in Japan by Buddhist clerics, but during the Tokugawa period, Confucianism emerged from Buddhist religious control. This system of thought increased attention to a secular view of man and society. The ethical humanism, rationalism, and historical perspective of neo-Confucian doctrine appealed to the official class. By the mid-seventeenth century, neo-Confucianism was Japan's dominant legal philosophy and contributed directly to the development of the kokugaku (national learning) school of thought.

Kaitai Shinsho, Japan's first treatise on Western anatomy, published in 1774.

Advanced studies and growing applications of neo-Confucianism contributed to the transition of the social and political order from feudal norms to class- and large-group-oriented practices. The rule of the people or Confucian man was gradually replaced by the rule of law. New laws were developed, and new administrative devices were instituted. A new theory of government and a new vision of society emerged as a means of justifying more comprehensive governance by the bakufu. Each person had a distinct place in society and was expected to work to fulfill his or her mission in life. The people were to be ruled with benevolence by those whose assigned duty it was to rule. Government was all-powerful but responsible and humane. Although the class system was influenced by neo-Confucianism, it was not identical to it. Whereas soldiers and clergy were at the bottom of the hierarchy in the Chinese model, in Japan, some members of these classes constituted the ruling elite.

Members of the samurai class adhered to bushi traditions with a renewed interest in Japanese history and in cultivation of the ways of Confucian scholar-administrators, resulting in the development of the concept of bushido (the way of the warrior). Another special way of life—chōnindō—also emerged. Chōnindō (the way of the townspeople) was a distinct culture that arose in cities such as Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo. It encouraged aspiration to bushido qualities—diligence, honesty, honor, loyalty, and frugality—while blending Shinto, neo-Confucian, and Buddhist beliefs. Study of mathematics, astronomy, cartography, engineering, and medicine were also encouraged. Emphasis was placed on quality of workmanship, especially in the arts. For the first time, urban populations had the means and leisure time to support a new mass culture. Their search for enjoyment became known as ukiyo (the floating world), an ideal world of fashion, popular entertainment, and the discovery of aesthetic qualities in objects and actions of everyday life, including sex (shunga). Professional female entertainers (geisha), music, popular stories, Kabuki and bunraku (puppet theater), poetry, a rich literature, and art, exemplified by beautiful woodblock prints (known as ukiyo-e), were all part of this flowering of culture. Literature also flourished with the talented examples of the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1724) and the poet, essayist, and travel writer Matsuo Bashō (1644–94).

The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849).

Ukiyo-e prints began to be produced in the late 17th century, but in 1764 Harunobu produced the first polychrome print. Print designers of the next generation, including Torii Kiyonaga and Utamaro, created elegant and sometimes insightful depictions of courtesans. In the 19th century, the dominant figure was Hiroshige, a creator of romantic and somewhat sentimental landscape prints. The odd angles and shapes through which Hiroshige often viewed landscape and the work of Kiyonaga and Utamaro, with its emphasis on flat planes and strong linear outlines, later had a profound impact on such Western artists as Edgar Degas and Vincent van Gogh.

Buddhism and Shinto were both still important in Tokugawa Japan. Buddhism, combined with neo-Confucianism, provided standards of social behavior. Although not as powerful politically as it had been in the past, Buddhism was espoused by the upper classes. Proscriptions against Christianity benefited Buddhism in 1640 when the bakufu ordered everyone to register at a temple. The rigid separation of Tokugawa society into han, villages, wards, and households helped reaffirm local Shinto attachments. Shinto provided spiritual support to the political order and was an important tie between the individual and the community. Shinto also helped preserve a sense of national identity.

Shinto eventually assumed an intellectual form as shaped by neo-Confucian rationalism and materialism. The kokugaku movement emerged from the interactions of these two belief systems. Kokugaku contributed to the emperor-centered nationalism of modern Japan and the revival of Shinto as a national creed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Kojiki, Nihon Shoki, and Man'yōshū were all studied anew in the search for the Japanese spirit. Some purists in the kokugaku movement, such as Motoori Norinaga, even criticized the Confucian and Buddhist influences—in effect, foreign influences—for contaminating Japan's ancient ways. Japan was the land of the kami and, as such, had a special destiny.

End of the shogunate

Main article: Late Tokugawa shogunate

Decline of the Tokugawa

The end of this period is particularly called the late Tokugawa shogunate. The cause for the end of this period is controversial but is recounted as the forcing of Japan's opening to the world by Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy, whose armada (known by Japanese as "the black ships") fired weapons from Edo Bay. Several artificial land masses were created to block the range of the armada, and this land remains in what is presently called the Odaiba district.

The Tokugawa did not eventually collapse simply because of intrinsic failures. Foreign intrusions helped to precipitate a complex political struggle between the bakufu and a coalition of its critics. The continuity of the anti-bakufu movement in the mid-nineteenth century would finally bring down the Tokugawa. From the outset, the Tokugawa attempted to restrict families' accumulation of wealth and fostered a "back to the soil" policy, in which the farmer, the ultimate producer, was the ideal person in society.

Despite these efforts to restrict wealth and partly because of the extraordinary period of peace, the standard of living for urban and rural dwellers alike grew significantly during the Tokugawa period. Better means of crop production, transport, housing, food, and entertainment were all available, as was more leisure time, at least for urban dwellers. The literacy rate was high for a preindustrial society (by some estimates the literacy rate in the city of Edo was 80 percent), and cultural values were redefined and widely imparted throughout the samurai and chōnin classes. Despite the reappearance of guilds, economic activities went well beyond the restrictive nature of the guilds, and commerce spread and a money economy developed. Although government heavily restricted the merchants and viewed them as unproductive and usurious members of society, the samurai, who gradually became separated from their rural ties, depended greatly on the merchants and artisans for consumer goods, artistic interests, and loans. In this way, a subtle subversion of the warrior class by the chōnin took place.

A struggle arose in the face of political limitations that the shogun imposed on the entrepreneurial class. The government ideal of an agrarian society failed to square with the reality of commercial distribution. A huge government bureaucracy had evolved, which now stagnated because of its discrepancy with a new and evolving social order. Compounding the situation, the population increased significantly during the first half of the Tokugawa period. Although the magnitude and growth rates are uncertain, there were at least 26 million commoners and about four million members of samurai families and their attendants when the first nationwide census was taken in 1721. Drought, followed by crop shortages and starvation, resulted in twenty great famines between 1675 and 1837. During the Tokugawa period, there were 154 famines, of which 21 were widespread and serious.[5] Peasant unrest grew, and by the late eighteenth century, mass protests over taxes and food shortages had become commonplace. Newly landless families became tenant farmers, while the displaced rural poor moved into the cities. As the fortunes of previously well-to-do families declined, others moved in to accumulate land, and a new, wealthy farming class emerged. Those people who benefited were able to diversify production and to hire laborers, while others were left discontented. Many samurai fell on hard times and were forced into handicraft production and wage jobs for merchants.

Although Japan was able to acquire and refine a wide variety of scientific knowledge, the rapid industrialization of the West during the 18th century created for the first time a material gap in terms of technologies and armament between Japan and the West (which did not really exist at the beginning of the Edo period), forcing it to abandon its policy of seclusion and contributing to the end of the Tokugawa regime.

Western intrusions were on the increase in the early nineteenth century. Russian warships and traders encroached on Karafuto (called Sakhalin under Russian and Soviet control) and on the Kuril Islands, the southernmost of which are considered by the Japanese as the northern islands of Hokkaidō. A British warship entered Nagasaki harbour searching for enemy Dutch ships in 1808, and other warships and whalers were seen in Japanese waters with increasing frequency in the 1810s and 1820s. Whalers and trading ships from the United States also arrived on Japan's shores. Although the Japanese made some minor concessions and allowed some landings, they largely attempted to keep all foreigners out, sometimes using force. Rangaku became crucial not only in understanding the foreign "barbarians" but also in using the knowledge gained from the West to fend them off.

By the 1830s, there was a general sense of crisis. Famines and natural disasters hit hard, and unrest led to a peasant uprising against officials and merchants in Osaka in 1837. Although it lasted only a day, the uprising made a dramatic impression. Remedies came in the form of traditional solutions that sought to reform moral decay rather than address institutional problems. The shogun's advisers pushed for a return to the martial spirit, more restrictions on foreign trade and contacts, suppression of rangaku, censorship of literature, and elimination of "luxury" in the government and samurai class. Others sought the overthrow of the Tokugawa and espoused the political doctrine of sonnō jōi (revere the emperor, expel the barbarians), which called for unity under imperial rule and opposed foreign intrusions. The bakufu persevered for the time being amidst growing concerns over Western successes in establishing colonial enclaves in China following the First Opium War of 1839–1842. More reforms were ordered, especially in the economic sector, to strengthen Japan against the Western threat.

Japan turned down a demand from the United States, which was greatly expanding its own presence in the Asia-Pacific region, to establish diplomatic relations when Commodore James Biddle appeared in Edo Bay with two warships in July 1846.

End of seclusion

Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda, Shizuoka.

When Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. The chairman of the senior councillors, Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security, Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the daimyo who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe decided to compromise by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) opened two ports to American ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda, a seaport on the Izu Peninsula, southwest of Edo. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the U.S. and Japan (Harris Treaty), opening still more areas to American trade, was forced on the bakufu five years later.

The resulting damage to the bakufu was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the bakufu. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai, had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyo, further undermining the already weakened bakufu. In the Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, a naval training school with Dutch instructors was set up at Nagasaki, and a Western-style military school was established at Edo; by the next year, the government was translating Western books. Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening bakufu councils to tozama daimyo, and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864).

At the head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki, who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school—based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, the turning back of the West, and the founding of a world empire under the divine Yamato Dynasty.

In the final years of the Tokugawa, foreign contacts increased as more concessions were granted. The new treaty with the United States in 1859 allowed more ports to be opened to diplomatic representatives, unsupervised trade at four additional ports, and foreign residences in Osaka and Edo. It also embodied the concept of extraterritoriality (foreigners were subject to the laws of their own countries but not to Japanese law). Hotta lost the support of key daimyo, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu, rejected Hotta's request and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shogun died without an heir, Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shogun, a candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyo. The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing Tokugawa Yoshitomi, arresting Nariaki and Keiki, executing Yoshida Shoin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu), and signing treaties with the United States and five other nations, thus ending more than 200 years of exclusion.

Bakumatsu modernization and conflicts

Main article: Late Tokugawa shogunate Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last Shogun, in French military uniform, c. 1867 Kanrin Maru, Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, 1855.

During the last years of the bakufu, or bakumatsu, the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country.

The army and the navy were modernized. A naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto. French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of the shogun already possessed eight Western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru, which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin war under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French military mission was established to help modernize the armies of the bakufu.

Revering the emperor as a symbol of unity, extremists wrought violence and death against the Bakufu and Han authorities and foreigners. Foreign naval retaliation in the Anglo-Satsuma War led to still another concessionary commercial treaty in 1865, but Yoshitomi was unable to enforce the Western treaties. A bakufu army was defeated when it was sent to crush dissent in the Satsuma and Chōshū Domains in 1866. Finally, in 1867, Emperor Kōmei died and was succeeded by his minor son Emperor Meiji.

Tokugawa Yoshinobu reluctantly became head of the Tokugawa house and shogun. He tried to reorganize the government under the emperor while preserving the shogun's leadership role. Fearing the growing power of the Satsuma and Chōshū daimyo, other daimyo called for returning the shogun's political power to the emperor and a council of daimyo chaired by the former Tokugawa shogun. Yoshinobu accepted the plan in late 1867 and resigned, announcing an "imperial restoration". The Satsuma, Chōshū, and other han leaders and radical courtiers, however, rebelled, seized the imperial palace, and announced their own restoration on January 3, 1868.

Following the Boshin war (1868–1869), the bakufu was abolished, and Yoshinobu was reduced to the ranks of the common daimyo. Resistance continued in the North throughout 1868, and the bakufu naval forces under Admiral Enomoto Takeaki continued to hold out for another six months in Hokkaidō, where they founded the short-lived Republic of Ezo.

Events

Legacy

In 2009 Azby Brown published the book "Just Enough: Lessons in Living Green from Traditional Japan", arguing that the Edo period offers answers to 21st century environmental problems.[6]

Popular culture

Main article: Edo period in popular culture

The Edo period is the setting of many works of popular culture. These include novels, stage plays, films, television shows, animated works, manga, and video games.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Art of the Edo period

Preceded by: Azuchi-Momoyama period 1573 - 1603

History of Japan Edo period 1603 - 1868

Succeeded by: Empire of Japan 1868 - 1945

Notes

  1. ^ Beasley, p. 22.
  2. ^ Lewis, p. 31–32.
  3. ^ Books.google.com
  4. ^ Diamond, pp. 297–304.
  5. ^ A Chronology of Japanese History
  6. ^ "Eco Edo: A new book delves into Japan's past for tips on how to save the planet". Metropolis Magazine. February 4, 2010. http://metropolis.co.jp/features/feature/eco-edo/.

References

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies. Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate -- Tokugawa Ieyasu's Descendants
Ieyasu(1)
Hidetada(2) Yorinobu
Iemitsu(3) Mitsusada
Ietsuna(4) Tsunayoshi(5) Tsunashige
Yoshimune(8)
Ienobu(6)
Ieshige(9)
Ietsugu(7)
Ieharu(10)
Ienari(11)
Ieyoshi(12)
Iesada(13)
Iemochi(14)
Yoshinobu(15)
All Tokugawa shoguns claim descent from Ieyasu, who is recognized as the founder of this dynasty. The broken lines indicate adoptions within the shogunal clan.
Tokugawa Shogunate -- Chronology, Dates, Paternity
Ieyasu • (b. 1543–1616) • 1st shogun • (ruled 1603–1605) • son of Matsudaira Hirotada
Hidetada • (b. 1579–1632) • 2nd shogun • (r. 1605–1623) • son of Ieyasu
Iemitsu • (b. 1604–1651) • 3rd shogun • (r. 1623–1651) • son of Hidetada
Ietsuna • (b. 1641–1680) • 4th shogun • (r. 1651–1680) • son of Iemitsu
Tsunayoshi • (b. 1646–1709) • 5th shogun • (r. 1680–1709) • son of Iemitsu, brother of Ietsuna
Ienobu • (b. 1662–1712) • 6th shogun • (r. 1709–1712) • son of Tokugawa Tsunashige
Ietsugu • (b. 1709–1716) • 7th shogun • (r. 1713–1716) • son of Ienobu
Yoshimine • (b. 1684–1751) • 8th shogun • (r. 1716–1745) • son of Tokugawa Mitsusada
Ieshige • (b. 1711–1761) • 9th shogun • (r. 1745–1760) • son of Yoshimine
Ieharu • (b. 1737–1786) • 10th shogun • (r. 1760–1786) • son of Ieshige
Ienari • (b. 1773–1841) • 11th shogun • (r. 1787–1837) • adopted son of Ieharu
Ieyoshi • (b. 1793–1853) • 12th shogun • (r. 1837–1853) • son of Ianari
Iesada • (b. 1824–1858) • 13th shogun • (r. 1853–1858) • son of
Iemochi • (b. 1846–1866) • 14th shogun • (r. 1858–1866) • son of Tokugawa Nariyuki
Yoshinobu • (b. 1837–1913) • 15th shogun • (r. 1867–1868) • son of Tokugawa Nariaki
Tokugawa Bureaucracy Organization Chart
Ōmetsuke
Metsuke
Rōjū Jisha-bugyō
Tairō
Rōjū-kaku Edo machi-bugyō Kita-machi-bugyō
Shogun
Sobayōnin Gaikoku-bugyō Minami-machi-bugyō
Wakadoshiyori Gunkan-bugyō Honjo machi-bugyō
Daimyo Gusoku-bugyō
Hakodate bugyō
Haneda bugyō
Gundai
Hyōgo bugyō
Daikan
Kanagawa bugyō Kinza (gold monopoly)
Kane-bugyō
Kanjō bugyō Ginza (silver monopoly)
Kura-bugyō
Kinzan-bugyō Dōza (copper monopoly)
Kyoto shoshidai Kyoto machi-bugyō Shuza (cinnabar monopoly)
Nagasaki bugyō Fushimi bugyō
Niigata bugyō Nara bugyō
Nikkō bugyō
Osaka machi-bugyō
Osaka jōdai
Sakai bugyō
Rōya-bugyō
Sado bugyō
Sakuji-bugyō
Shimada bugyō
Sunpu jōdai
Uraga bugyō
Yamada bugyō
This bureaucracy evolved in an ad hoc manner, responding to perceived needs.
Tokugawa Officials
Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1603–1605) · Tokugawa Hidetada (1605–1623) · Tokugawa Iemitsu (1623–1651) · Tokugawa Ietsuna (1651–1680) · Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1680–1709) · Tokugawa Ienobu (1709–1712) · Tokugawa Ietsugu (1713–1716) · Tokugawa Yoshimune (1716–1745) · Tokugawa Ieshige (1745–1760) · Tokugawa Ieharu (1760–1786) · Tokugawa Ienari (1787–1837) · Tokugawa Ieyoshi (1837–1853) · Tokugawa Iesada (1853–1858) · Tokugawa Iemochi (1858–1866) · Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1867–1868)
Tairō

Sakai Tadayo (1636) · Doi Toshikatsu (1638-1644) · Sakai Tadakatsu (1638-1656) · Sakai Tadakiyo (1666-1680) · Ii Naozumi (1668-1676) · Hotta Masatoshi (1681-1684) · Ii Naooki (1696-1700, 1711-1714) · Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu (1706-1709) · Ii Naoyuki (1784-1787) · Ii Naoaki (1835-1841) · Ii Naosuke (1858-1860) · Sakai Tadashige (1865)
Rōjū

Ōkubo Tadachika (1593-1614) · Ōkubo Nagayasu (1600-1613) · Honda Masanobu (1600-1615) · Naruse Masanari (1600-1616) · Andō Naotsugu (1600-1616) · Honda Masazumi (1600-1622) · Naitō Kiyonari (1601-1606) · Aoyama Tadanari (1601-1606) · Aoyama Narishige (1608-1613) · Sakai Tadatoshi (1609-1627) · Sakai Tadayo (1610-1634) · Doi Toshikatsu (1610-1638) · Andō Shigenobu (1611-1621) · Naitō Kiyotsugu (1616-1617) · Aoyama Tadatoshi (1616-1623) · Inoue Masanari (1617-1628) · Nagai Naomasa (1622-1633) · Abe Masatsugu (1623-1626) · Inaba Masakatsu (1623-1634) · Naitō Tadashige (1623-1633) · Sakai Tadakatsu (1624-1638) · Morikawa Shigetoshi (1628-1632) · Aoyama Yukinari (1628-1633) · Matsudaira Nobutsuna (1632-1662) · Abe Tadaaki (1633-1666) · Hotta Masamori (1635-1651) · Abe Shigetsugu (1638-1651) · Matsudaira Norinaga (1642-1654) · Sakai Tadakiyo (1653-1666) · Inaba Masanori (1657-1681) · Kuze Hiroyuki (1663-1679) · Itakura Shigenori (1665-1668, 1670-1673) · Tsuchiya Kazunao (1665-1679) · Abe Masayoshi (1673-1676) · Ōkubo Tadatomo (1677-1698) · Hotta Masatoshi (1679-1681) · Doi Toshifusa (1679-1681) · Itakura Shigetane (1680-1681) · Toda Tadamasa (1681-1699) · Abe Masatake (1681-1704) · Matsudaira Nobuyuki (1685-1686) · Tsuchiya Masanao (1687-1718) · Ogasawara Nagashige (1697-1705, 1709-1710) · Akimoto Takatomo (1699-1707) · Inaba Masamichi (1701-1707) · Honda Masanaga (1704-1711) · Ōkubo Tadamasu (1705-1713) · Inoue Masamine (1705-1722) · Abe Masataka (1711-1717) · Kuze Shigeyuki (1713-1720) · Matsudaira Nobutsune (1714-1716) · Toda Tadazane (1714-1729) · Mizuno Tadayuki (1717-1730) · Andō Nobutomo (1722-1732) · Matsudaira Norisato (1723-1745) · Matsudaira Tadachika (1724-1728) · Ōkubo Tsuneharu (1728) · Sakai Tadaoto (1728-1735) · Matsudaira Nobutoki (1730-1744) · Matsudaira Terusada (1730-1745) · Kuroda Naokuni (1732-1735) · Honda Tadanaga (1734-1746) · Toki Yoritoshi (1742-1744) · Sakai Tadazumi (1744-1749) · Matsudaira Norikata (1745-1746) · Hotta Masasuke (1745-1761) · Nishio Tadanao (1746-1760) · Honda Masayoshi (1746-1758) · Matsudaira Takechika (1746-1779) · Sakai Tadayori (1749-1764) · Matsudaira Terutaka (1758-1781) · Inoue Masatsune (1760-1763) · Akimoto Sumitomo (1747-1764, 1765-1767) · Doi Toshitsura (1838-1844) · Inoue Masaharu (1840-1843) · Andō Nobumasa (1860-1862) · Itakura Katsukiyo (1862-1864, 1865-1868) · Inoue Masanao (1862-1864) · Mizuno Tadakiyo (1862-1866) · Sakai Tadashige (1863-1864) · Arima Michizumi (1863-1864) · Makino Tadayuki (1863-1865) · Matsumae Takahiro (1864-1865) · Abe Masato (1864-1865) · Suwa Tadamasa (1864-1865) · Inaba Masakuni (1864-1865, 1866-1868) · Matsudaira Munehide (1864-1866) · Inoue Masanao (1865-1867) · Matsudaira Yasuhide (1865-1868) · Mizuno Tadanobu (1866) · Matsudaira Norikata (1866-1868) · Inaba Masami (1866-1868) · Matsudaira Sadaaki (1867) · Ōkōchi Masatada (1867-1868) · Sakai Tadatō (1867-1868) · Tachibana Taneyuki (1868)
Wakadoshiyori

Nagai Naoyuki (1867-1868) ·
Kyoto shoshidai

Okudaira Nobumasa (1600-1601) · Itakura Katsushige (1601-1619) · Makino Chikashige (1654-1668) · Itakura Shigenori (1668-1670) · Nagai Naotsune (1670-1678) · Toda Tadamasa (1678-1681) · Inaba Masamichi (1681-1685) · Tsuchiya Masanao (1685-1687) · Naitō Shigeyori (1687-1690) · Matsudaira Nobuoki (1690-1691) · Ogasawara Nagashige (1691-1697) · Matsudaira Nobutsune (1697-1714) · Mizuno Tadayuki (1714-1717) · Matsudaira Tadachika(1717-1724) · Makino Hideshige (1724-1734) · Toki Yoritoshi {1734-1742) · Makino Sadamichi (1742-1749) · Matsudaira Sukekuni (1749-1752) · Sakai Tadamochi (1752-1756) · Matsudaira Terutaka(1756-1758) · Inoue Masatsune (1758-1760) · Abe Masasuke (1760-1764) · Abe Masachika (1764-1768) · Doi Toshisato (1769-1777) · Kuze Hiroakira (1777-1781) · Makino Sadanaga (1781-1784) · Toda Tadatō (1784-1789) · Ōta Sukeyoshi (1789-1782) · Hotta Masanari (1792-1798) · Makino Tadakiyo (1798-1801) · Doi Toshiatsu (1801-1802) · Aoyama Tadayasu (1802-1804) · Inaba Masanobu (1804-1806) · Abe Masayoshi (1806-1808) · Sakai Tadayuki (1808-1815) · Ōkubo Tadazane (1815-1818) · Matsudaira Norihiro (1818-1823) · Naitō Nobuatsu (1823-1825) · Matsudaira Yasutō (1825-1826) · Mizuno Tadakuni (1826-1828) · Matsudaira Muneakira (1828-1832) · Ōta Sukemoto (1832-1834) · Matsudaira Nobuyori (1834-1837) · Doi Toshitsura (1837-1838) · Manabe Akikatsu (1838-1840) · Makino Tadamasa (1840-1843) · Sakai Tadaaki (1843-1850) · Naitō Nobuchika (1850-1851) · Wakisaka Yasuori (1851-1857) · Honda Tadamoto (1857-1858) · Sakai Tadaaki (1858-1862) · Matsudaira Munehide (1862) · Makino Tadayuki (1862-1863) · Inaba Masakuni (1863-1864) · Matsudaira Sadaaki (1864-1867)
Bugyō

Bugu-bugyō (post-1863) · Edo machi-bugyō · Fushimi bugyō · Gaikoku-bugyō (post-1858) · Gunkan-bugyō (post-1859) · Gusoku-bugyō · Hakodate bugyō · Haneda bugyō (post-1853) · Hyōgo bugyō (post-1864) · Jisha-bugyō · Kanagawa bugyō (post-1859) · Kanjō-bugyō (post-1787) · Kinzan-bugyō · Kyoto machi-bugyō · Nara bugyō · Machi-bugyō · Nagasaki bugyō · Niigata bugyō · Nikkō bugyō · Osaka jōdai · Osaka machi-bugyō · Rōya-bugyō · Sado bugyō · Sakai bugyō · Sakuji-bugyō (post-1632) · Shimoda bugyō · Sunpu jōdai · Uraga bugyō · Yamada bugyō
Daimyo
Hatamoto
Ōmetsuke

Yagyū Munenori (1632-1636) · Mizuno Morinobu (1632-1636) · Akiyama Masashige 1632-1640) · Inoue Masashige (1632-1658) · Kagazume Tadazumi (1640-1650) · Nakane Masamori (1650) · Hōjō Ujinaga (1655-1670) · Ōoka Tadatane (1670) · Nakayama Naomori (1684) · Sengoku Hisanao (1695-1719) · Shōda Yasutoshi (1699-1701) · Sakakibara Tadayuki (1836-1837) · Atobe Yoshisuke (1839-1841, 1855-1856) · Tōyama Kagemoto (1844) · Ido Hiromichi 1853-1855) · Tsutsui Masanori (1854-1857) · Ōkubo Tadahiro (1862) · Matsudaira Yasuhide (1864) · Nagai Naoyuki (1864-1865, 1865-1867) · Yamaoka Takayuki (1868) · Oda Nobushige (1868)
Metsuke
Kyoto Shugoshoku

Matsudaira Katamori (1862-1864) · Matsudaira Yoshinaga (1864) · Matsudaira Katamori (1864-1867)
The several configurations of the Tokugawa shogunate's bureaucracy were changed according to perceived needs and conditions.

Categories: History of Japan | Edo period

 

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'Edo Period' News
The Unaccountable Legislator - Nigerian Observer
nigerianobservernews.com
The Unaccountable Legislator - Nigerian Observer
Thu, 15 Jul 2010 08:54:05 GMT+00:00
Nigerian Observer Oloyo was the member representing Akoko- Edo North Constituency. He was said to have absented himself from the meetings of the House for 94 days during the ...
Google News Search: Edo period,
Sat Jul 24 07:41:14 2010
'Edo Period' Images
Commode with Pavilions in Landscape<br>Lacquer panel Edo period
suntory.com
Commode with Pavilions in Landscape<br​>Lacquer panel Edo period
400px x 555px | 104.30kB

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Yahoo Images Search: Edo period,
Sun Jul 25 13:11:52 2010
'Edo Period' Blogs
Edo - period kappa sketches ::: Pink Tentacle
pinktentacle.com
Edo - period kappa sketches ::: Pink Tentacle

Edo

Fri, 02 Mar 2007 09:46:23 GM

The . Edo period. (1603 to 1867) saw some serious scientific literature devoted to the study of these creatures. Suikokouryaku (1820), for example, is a compendium of kappa-related information gathered from a variety of sources from Japan ...

Google Blogs Search: Edo period,
Tue Jul 27 11:40:28 2010
'Edo Period' Answers
nonfighting edo period anime?
Q. i'm looking for an anime based in the edo period or with a charter from the edo period. good exsamples of anime like this are hikaru no go (sai) The Story of Saiunkoku anyone else know any good ones? thx 4 helping people can have fighting in it as long as it isnt the main base of the anime
Asked by Steffi C - Tue Jun 22 22:20:34 2010 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments
Yahoo Answers Search: Edo period,
Wed Jul 28 02:46:13 2010
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