Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the chemist A chemist is a scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties such as density, acidity, size and shape. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance, peace activist A peace activist is a political activist who advocates for a peaceful resolution of political disputes. Peace activists are part of the peace movement, author An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created. The second entry goes on to clarify that, when using the term author, the "anything" which is created is most usually associated with written work, and educator If you can address this concern by improving, copyediting, sourcing, renaming or merging the page, please edit this page and do so. You may remove this message if you improve the article or otherwise object to deletion for any reason. To avoid confusion, it helps to explain why you object to the deletion, either in the edit summary or on the talk. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists in any field of the 20th century[1][2]. Pauling was among the first scientists to work in the fields of quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry, which applies quantum mechanics and quantum field theory to address issues and problems in chemistry. The description of the electronic behavior of atoms and molecules as pertaining to their reactivity is one of the applications of quantum chemistry. Quantum chemistry lies on the border, molecular biology Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein, and orthomolecular medicine Orthomolecular medicine, or megavitamin therapy, is a form of complementary and alternative medicine that seeks to prevent or treat diseases with nutrients prescribed as dietary supplements or derived from diets. Orthomolecular medicine focuses on what it sees as the right nutritional molecules in the right amounts for the individual. It often. He is one of only 4 individuals to have won multiple Nobel Prizes The Nobel Prize is a Swedish prize, established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist and inventor Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. An associated prize, The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was instituted by Sweden's central bank in.[3] He is one of only two people to have been awarded a Nobel Prize in two different fields (the Chemistry and Peace prizes), the other being Marie Curie (the Chemistry and Physics prizes), and the only person to have been awarded each of his prizes without sharing it with another recipient.[4]

Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, spent part of his childhood in the small town of Condon, Oregon, then returned and attended high school in Portland. He dropped out of high school one class short of graduation in order to attend Oregon Agricultural College Oregon State University is a coeducational, public research university located in Corvallis, Oregon, United States. The university offers undergraduate, graduate and doctoral degrees and a multitude of research opportunities. There are over 200 academic degree programs offered through the university. OSU's programs in nuclear engineering, ecology, (now Oregon State University), from which he graduated in 1922 with a degree in chemical engineering Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science , and life sciences (e.g. biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. In addition to producing useful materials, modern chemical engineering. Pauling then went to the California Institute of Technology The California Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The Institute maintains a strong emphasis on the natural sciences and engineering, and operates and manages NASA's neighboring Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Caltech is a small school, with only about 2100 students (about 900 (Caltech), where he received his Ph. D Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated Ph.D. or PhD for the Latin philosophiæ doctor, meaning "teacher of philosophy", or, more rarely, D.Phil., for the equivalent doctor philosophiæ, is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities. In many, but not all countries in the English-speaking world, it has become the highest degree one can in physical chemistry The term "physical chemistry" was probably first introduced by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1752, when he presented a lecture course entitled "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" before the students of Petersburg University and mathematical physics Mathematical physics is the scientific discipline concerned with the interface of mathematics and physics. There is no real consensus about what does or does not constitute mathematical physics. A very typical definition is the one given by the Journal of Mathematical Physics: "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the in 1925. Two years later, he accepted a position at Caltech as an assistant professor in theoretical chemistry. In 1932, Pauling published a landmark paper, detailing his theory of orbital hybridization In chemistry, hybridisation or hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for the qualitative description of atomic bonding properties. Hybridised orbitals are very useful in the explanation of the shape of molecular orbitals for molecules. It is an integral part of valence bond theory. Although and analyzed the tetravalency In chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an atom with four electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence . An example is methane (CH4): the tetravalent carbon atom forms a covalent bond with four hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom is called tetravalent because it forms 4 covalent bonds of carbon Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of. That year, he also established the concept of electronegativity Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the ability of an atom to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself in a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic weight and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated and developed a scale Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the ability of an atom to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself in a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic weight and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated that would help predict the nature of chemical bonding. Pauling continued this work, but also began publishing papers on the structure of the atomic nucleus. In 1954, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. This award is. As a biochemist, Pauling conducted research with X-ray crystallography X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters into many different directions. From the angles and intensities of these scattered beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal and modeling in crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization and protein structures Proteins are an important class of biological macromolecules present in all biological organisms, made up of such elements as carbon,hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur. All proteins are polymers of amino acids. The polymers, also known as polypeptides consist of a sequence of 20 different L-α-amino acids, also referred to as residues. For. This type of approach was used by Rosalind Franklin Rosalind Elsie Franklin was an English biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer who made important contributions to the understanding of the fine molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal and graphite. Franklin is still best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA. Her data, according to Francis Crick, were “the data we, James Watson and Francis Crick Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS , was a British molecular biologist, physicist, and neuroscientist, and most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953. He, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning in the U.K to discover the double helix In molecular biology, the double helix refers to the structure of DNA. The double-helix model of DNA structure was first published in the journal Nature by James D. Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, based upon the crucial X-ray diffraction image of DNA from Rosalind Franklin in 1952 , followed by her more clarified DNA image with Raymond Gosling, structure of the DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed molecule.

During the Second World War World War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, Pauling worked on military research and development. However, when the war ended he became particularly concerned about the further development and possible use of atomic weapons A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter; a modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than a thousand kilograms can produce an explosion and with the destruction inflicted on the world by war in general. Ava Helen Pauling, Linus's wife, was a pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved; to calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war; to opposition to any organization of society and in time he came to share her views.[5] Pauling soon began to express his concerns with the effects of nuclear fallout Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion. It commonly refers to the radioactive dust created when a nuclear weapon explodes. This radioactive dust, consisting of hot particles, is a kind of radioactive contamination and in 1962, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize The Nobel Peace Prize is one of five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize should be awarded "to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and for his campaign against above ground nuclear testing Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons have tested them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under. His beliefs were not without controversy at the time and he was criticized by some for his actions.

Pauling was also successful as an author and educator. His first book, The Nature of the Chemical Bond (1939), is considered influential even to this day, as is his introductory textbook A textbook is a manual of instruction or a standard book in any branch of study. They are produced according to the demand of educational institutions. Although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books and increasingly in scanned format in P2P networks, General Chemistry (1947). Later in life, he became an advocate for greatly increased consumption of vitamin C Ascorbate is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms, humans being a notable exception. Deficiency in this vitamin causes scurvy in humans. It is also widely used as a food additive and other nutrients. He generalized his ideas to define orthomolecular medicine Orthomolecular medicine, or megavitamin therapy, is a form of complementary and alternative medicine that seeks to prevent or treat diseases with nutrients prescribed as dietary supplements or derived from diets. Orthomolecular medicine focuses on what it sees as the right nutritional molecules in the right amounts for the individual. It often, which is still regarded as unorthodox The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern Western world, encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional medicine". Commonly cited examples include naturopathy, chiropractic, herbalism, traditional Chinese medicine, Unani, Ayurveda, meditation, yoga, biofeedback, hypnosis, homeopathy, by conventional medicine Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. He popularized his concepts, analyses, research and insights in several successful but controversial books, such as How to Live Longer and Feel Better in 1986.

Contents

Biography

Early years

Herman Henry William Pauling c. 1900, Linus Pauling's father

Pauling was born in Portland Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers in the state of Oregon. As of July 2008, it has an estimated population of 575,930, making it the thirtieth most populous in the United States. It has been referred to as the greenest city in the United States. Portland is Oregon', Oregon Oregon (pronounced /ˈɔərɨɡən/ OR-i-gən) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern boundaries as the first born child to Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).[6] He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.[7] Herman and Lucy—then 23 and 18 years old, respectively—had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.[8]

Herman Pauling descended from South-German farmers, who had immigrated to a German The German people are an ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent, and speaking the German language as a mother tongue. Within Germany, Germans are defined by citizenship (Federal Germans, Bundesdeutsche), distinguished from people of German ancestry (Deutschstämmige). Historically, in the context of the German settlement in Concordia, Missouri Missouri (pronounced /mɨˈzʊəri/ , and infrequently locally /mɨˈzʊərə/) is a state in the Midwest region of the United States bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. Missouri is the 18th most populous state. It comprises 114 counties and one independent city. Missouri's capital is Jefferson. Carl Pauling moved his family to California California ( /kælɪˈfɔrnjə/ ) is a state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, and, to the south, the Mexican state of Baja California. California is the most populous U.S. state. Its four largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, before settling in Oswego. There, he worked as an ironmonger Today, the term Ironmonger refers to a retailer of iron goods. This has often been expanded to include consumer goods made of aluminium, brass, or other metals, as well as plastics. In modern usage, it is thus synonymous with a hardware shop. Ironmongers often double as tinkers at a foundry A foundry is a factory which produces metal castings from either ferrous or non-ferrous alloys. Metals are turned into parts by melting the metal into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and then removing the mold material or casting. The most common metal alloys processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as steel,.[9] After completing grammar school, Herman Pauling served as an apprentice to a druggist A dispensing chemist, in British English and Australian English, or pharmacist in North American English is a professional allowed to fulfil prescriptions. Upon completion of his services, he became a wholesale drug salesman.[10]

Pauling's mother, Lucy, of Irish The Irish people are a Western European ethnic group who originate in Ireland, in north western Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years (according to archaeological studies), with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolgs, Tuatha Dé Danann and the Milesians (in legend - there is no descent, was the daughter of Linus Wilson Darling, who had served as a teacher In education, a teacher is a person who educates others. A teacher who educates an individual student may also be described as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out by way of occupation or profession at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person wishing to become a teacher at, farmer The term farmer usually applies to a person who grows field crops, and/or manages orchards or vineyards, or raises livestock or poultry such as chicken and cows. Their products are usually sold in a market or, in a subsistence economy, consumed by the family or pooled by the community, surveyor, postmaster and lawyer at different points of his life. Linus Darling was orphaned at age 11 and apprenticed under a baker before becoming a schoolteacher. He fell in love with a young woman named Alice from Turner, Oregon, whom he eventually married.[11] On July 17, 1888, Alice gave birth to the couple's fifth child, but he was stillborn. Less than a month later, she died, leaving Darling to take care of their four young daughters.[12]

Linus Pauling spent his first year living in a one-room apartment with his parents in Portland. In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of the city.[13] They were crowded in their apartment, but couldn't afford more spacious living quarters in Portland. Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego, while Herman searched for new housing. Herman brought the family to Salem, where he took up a job as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore.[13] The business climate in Oswego was poor, so he moved his family to Condon in 1905.[14]

In 1909, Pauling's grandfather, Linus, divorced his second wife and married a young schoolteacher, almost the same age as his daughter Lucy. A few months later, he died of a heart attack, brought on by complications from nephritis.[15] Meanwhile, Herman Pauling was suffering from poor health and had regular sharp pains in his abdomen. Lucy's sister, Abbie, saw that Herman was dying and immediately called the family physician. The doctor gave Herman a sedative to reduce the pain, but it only offered temporary relief.[16] His health worsened in the coming months and finally died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.[17]

Linus was a voracious reader as a child, and at one point his father wrote a letter to The Oregonian inviting suggestions of additional books to occupy his time.[18] Pauling first planned to become a chemist after being amazed by experiments conducted with a small chemistry lab kit by his friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress.[19] In high school, Pauling continued to conduct chemistry experiments, borrowing much of the equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories. Operating from Simon's basement, the two young adults approached local dairies to offer their services in performing butterfat samplings at cheap prices. Dairymen were wary of trusting two young boys with the task, and as such, the business ended as a failure.[20]

By the fall of 1916, Pauling was a 15-year-old high school senior and had enough credits to enter Oregon Agricultural College (OAC, now known as Oregon State University) in Corvallis.[21] However, he did not have credit for two required American history courses that would satisfy his requirement to earn a high school diploma. He asked the school principal if he could take these courses concurrently during the spring semester. The principal denied his request, and Pauling decided to leave the school in June without a diploma.[22] His high school, Washington High School in Portland, awarded him the diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes.[23][24] During the summer, Pauling worked part-time at a grocery store, earning eight dollars a week. His mother set him up with an interview with a Mr. Schwietzerhoff, the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland. Pauling was hired as an apprentice machinist with a salary of 40 dollars a month. Pauling excelled at his job, and saw his salary increase to 50 dollars a month after being on the job for only a month.[25] In his spare time, he set up a photography lab with two friends and found business from a local photography company. He hoped that the business would earn him enough money to pay for his future college expenses.[26] Pauling received a letter of admission from OAC in September 1917 and immediately gave notice to his boss and told his mother of his plans.[27]

Higher education

Pauling's graduation photo from Oregon Agricultural College in 1922

In October 1917, Pauling entered Oregon Agricultural College and lived in a boarding house on campus with his cousin Mervyn and another man, using the $200 he had saved from odd jobs to finance his education. In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.[28] Pauling fell in love with a freshman girl named Irene early in the school year. By the end of October, he had used up $150 of his savings on her, taking her to shows and games. He soon got a job at the girls' dormitory, working 100 hours a month chopping wood for stoves, cutting up beef and mopping up the kitchen. Despite the 25 cent per hour salary, Pauling was still having trouble managing his finances. He began eating one hot meal a day at a restaurant off campus to minimize his expenses.[28] Pauling was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.[29] After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother, but the college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned $100 a month.[30] This allowed him to continue his studies at the college.

In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.[30] He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry. Pauling began to neglect his studies in humanities and social sciences. He had also exhausted the course offerings in the physics and mathematics departments. Professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a high-level mathematics course.[31] During the winter of his senior year, Pauling was approached by the college to teach a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.[32]

In 1922, Pauling graduated from OAC with a degree in chemical engineering and went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe G. Dickinson. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his Ph. D. in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925.

Personal life

During his senior year of college, Pauling taught a class called "Chemistry for Home Economic Majors".[33] In one of those classes, he met Ava Helen Miller from Beavercreek, whom he married on June 17, 1923. They had four children: Linus Carl Jr. (b. 1925); Peter Jeffress (1931-2003, a crystallographer and lecturer in chemistry); Edward Crellin (1937-1997, professor of biology at San Francisco State University and the University of California, Riverside), and Linda Helen, (b. 1932).

Pauling was raised as member of the Lutheran Church, but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church and declared publicly his atheist belief two years before his death.[34]

Career

Pauling had first been exposed to the concepts of quantum theory and quantum mechanics while he was studying at Oregon State University. He later traveled to Europe on a Guggenheim Fellowship, which was awarded to him in 1926, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts working in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in seeing how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Europe, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules. He also joined Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry fraternity.

In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry. He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created five rules now known as Pauling's Rules. By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.[35] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.[36]

At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer, who was spending part of his research and teaching schedule away from U.C. Berkeley at Caltech every year. The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. However, their relationship soured when Pauling began to suspect that Oppenheimer was becoming too close to Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. Once, when Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer had come to their place and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. Although she flatly refused, she reported the incident to Pauling. Disquieted by this strange chemistry, and her apparent nonchalance about the incident, he immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.

In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about the use of electrons in diffraction studies similar to the ones he had performed with X-rays. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, L. O. Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.

Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements—the Pauling Electronegativity Scale—which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.

Activism

Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II, but the aftermath of the war and his wife's pacifism changed his life profoundly, and he became a peace activist. During the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project, but he declined, not wanting to uproot his family. He did work on other projects that had military applications such as explosives, rocket propellants, an oxygen meter for submarines and patented an armor piercing shell and was awarded a Presidential Medal of Merit.[5][37] In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.[38] Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. His political activism prompted the U.S. State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.[39][40] His passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize. Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto in 1955.[41]

In 1958, Pauling began a petition drive in cooperation with biologist Barry Commoner, who had studied radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America and concluded that above-ground nuclear testing posed public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout.[42][43] He also participated in a public debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.[44] In 1958, Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with a petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. Public pressure subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day that the treaty went into force, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize, describing him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."[45] The Caltech Chemistry Department, wary of his political views, did not even formally congratulate him. However, the Biology Department did throw him a small party, showing they were more appreciative and sympathetic toward his work on radiation mutation. At Caltech he founded Sigma Xi's (The Scientific Research Society) chapter at the school, as he had previously been a member of that organisation. He continued his peace activism in the following years co-founding the International League of Humanists in 1974. He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signers of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement.

Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naive spokesman for Soviet communism. He was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country." An extraordinary headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway". Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970.

Biological molecules

Double Helix Discovery
William Astbury
Oswald Avery
Francis Crick
Erwin Chargaff
Max Delbrück
Jerry Donohue
Rosalind Franklin
Raymond Gosling
Phoebus Levene
Linus Pauling
Sir John Randall
Erwin Schrödinger
Alex Stokes
James Watson
Maurice Wilkins
Herbert Wilson

In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest. Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges, and Alfred Sturtevant. His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen atom. As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.

It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.

In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planarity of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey, and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure. This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integral number of amino acid residues.

Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;[46] however, his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, Watson and Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA using unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College. Early in 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States).[47] Politics did not, however, play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to. [48]

Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action. He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures. Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbruck, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.

Molecular genetics

In November 1949, Linus Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"[49] in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease had a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait had both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determined the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence—the dawn of molecular genetics.

Molecular medicine and medical research

National Library of Medicine portrait

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright’s disease, a renal disease. Experts believed then that Bright's disease was untreatable. With the help of Dr. Thomas Addis at Stanford, Pauling was able to control the disease with Addis' then unusual, low protein, salt-free diet. Addis also prescribed vitamins and minerals for all his patients.

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled, "Molecular Medicine".[50] In the late 1950s, Pauling worked on the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme disfunction. It wasn't until he read "Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry" by Abram Hoffer in 1965 that he realized that vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. Pauling published a brief paper, "Orthomolecular psychiatry", in the journal Science in 1968 (PMID 5641253) that gave name and principle to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s. Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and is strongly criticized by some.[51][52]

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds (Dunitz 1996:333). Excited by the results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.[53] Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, "Cancer and Vitamin C", that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public, but the medical establishment regarded his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds and cure cancer as quackery (Dunitz 1996:333), and considered the case closed after two randomized trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic and published in the New England Journal of Medicine failed to replicate[54] Pauling's study, which found that vitamin C supplementation lengthened survival times significantly.[55] Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation."[56][57] Pauling's original study, based on the observational studies of intravenous vitamin C by McCormick and Klenner, used intravenous vitamin C for the first ten days, but the randomized trials did not.[54] Pauling published critiques of the second Mayo-Moertel cancer trial's flaws over several years as he was able to slowly unearth some of the trial's undisclosed details.[58] However, the wave of adverse publicity generated by Moertel and the media effectively undercut Pauling's credibility and his vitamin C work for a generation,[59] the oncological mainstream continued with other avenues of treatment.[60] Always precariously perched since his molecular biologically inspired crusade to stop atmospheric nuclear testing in the 1950s,[61] the 1985 Mayo-Moertel confrontation left Pauling isolated from his institutional funding sources, academic support and a bemused public. However, Pauling did have allies in his cause to promote Vitamic C. He worked with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, an organization that treats brain-injured children, to advocate the use of the vitamin."[62] He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regimen, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.[63] Of late the "connection between vitamin C and cancer has become a respectable topic", and it was the subject of a Washington DC NIH conference in 1990 (Dunitz 1996:334).

Linus Pauling's book How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated very high intake of vitamins.

As of 2007, new evidence of high-dose Vitamin C efficacy was proposed by a Canadian group of researchers based on intravenous vitamin C. Intravenous vitamin C can achieve plasma concentrations up to 70-fold higher than oral vitamin C.[64]The selective toxicity of vitamin C for cancer cells has been demonstrated in-vitro (i.e., in a cell culture Petri dish), and was reported in 2005.[65] The combination of case-report data and preclinical information suggest biological plausibility and the possibility of clinical efficacy at the possible expense of critical toxicity at active doses; future clinical testing will ultimately determine the utility and safety of intravenous high-dose Vitamin C treatments for patients with cancer. Researchers released a paper demonstrating in-vivo vitamin C killing of cancer cells in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2007.[66] These researchers observed longer-than expected survival times in three patients treated with high doses of intravenous Vitamin C.[67] The researchers are reportedly planning a new Phase I clinical trial.[68]

With two colleagues, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, in 1973, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. In 1996, the Linus Pauling Institute moved from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, to become part of Oregon State University, where it continues to conduct research on micronutrients, phytochemicals (chemicals from plants), and other constituents of the diet in preventing and treating disease. Several of the employees that had previously worked at the Linus Pauling Institute in Palo Alto moved on to form the Genetic Information Research Institute.

Nature of the chemical bond

In the late 1920s Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond, leading to his famous textbook on the subject published in 1939. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". Pauling summarized his work on the chemical bond in The Nature of the Chemical Bond, one of the most influential chemistry books ever published.[69] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than half a century after first publication.

Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization.[70] While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp³ hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp² hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene. Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.

Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, between which most actual cases of bonding fall. It was here especially that Pauling's electronegativity concept was particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.[71]

The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene.[72] The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.[73] In a sense, this phenomenon resembles that of hybridization, described earlier, because it involves combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.

Structure of the atomic nucleus

On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with these words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei."[74] On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science, and Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci..[75] For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.[76][77][78][79][80][81]

Few modern text books on nuclear physics discuss the Pauling Spheron Model of the Atomic Nucleus, yet it provides a unique perspective, well published in the leading journals of science, on how fundamental "clusters of nucleons" can form shell structure in agreement with recognized theory of quantum mechanics. Pauling was well versed in quantum mechanics; he co-authored one of the first textbooks on the subject, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry. In a 2006 review of models of atomic nuclei, Norman D. Cook said of the Pauling Spheron Model: "...the model leads to a rather common-sense molecular build-up of nuclei and has an internal logic that is hard to deny...however, despite two decades of advocacy by Pauling, nuclear theorists have not elaborated on the idea of nucleon spherons, and Pauling's model has not entered mainstream nuclear theory."[82] Taken at face value, the conclusions of Norman Cook imply that the 1965 Pauling Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus has simply been ignored.

The Pauling spheron nucleon clusters include the deuteron[NP], helion [PNP], and triton [NPN]. Even-even nuclei were described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei. He made an effort to derive the shell structure of nuclei from the Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. It was sometimes said at that time that this work received more attention than it would have if it had been done by a less famous person, but more likely Pauling was taking a unique approach to understanding the relatively new discovery in the late 1940s of Maria Goeppert-Mayer of structure within the nucleus. In an interview Pauling commented on his model:[83]

“ Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations... ”

Legacy

Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 7:20 PM at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old.[84][85] A grave marker for him is in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon.[85][86]

Pauling was included in a list of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the magazine New Scientist, with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the twentieth century on the list. Gautam R. Desiraju, the author of the Millennium Essay in Nature,[87] claimed that Pauling was one of the greatest thinkers and visionaries of the millennium, along with Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. Pauling is notable for the diversity of his interests: quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. In all these fields, and especially on the boundaries between them, he made decisive contributions. His work on chemical bonding marks the beginning of modern quantum chemistry, and many of his contributions like hybridization and electronegativity have become part of standard chemistry textbooks. His valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the paramagnetic nature of oxygen and the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be superseded by the Molecular Orbital Theory of Robert Mulliken. However, the Valence Bond theory still exists in its modern form and competes with the Molecular Orbital Theory and Density Functional Theory (DFT) for describing the chemical phenomena.[88] Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.[citation needed] His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.[citation needed]

Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the "father of molecular biology"[cite this quote]. His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.[citation needed]

Pauling's work on the molecular basis of disease and its treatment is being carried on by a number of researchers, notably those at the Linus Pauling Institute, which lists a dozen principal investigators and faculty who study the role of micronutrients and phytochemicals in health and disease.

Items named after Pauling include "Pauling" street located in Foothill Ranch, California (notably once home to vitamin C/Emergen-C® maker Alacer Corp. Founder Jay Patrick was a friend of Linus Pauling.), Linus and Eva Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California, Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon, and Pauling Field a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon. Dr. Pauling spent his youth in Condon. Additionally, one wing of the Valley Library at Oregon State University bears his name.

Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.[89]

On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling.[90] His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901-1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease." The other scientists on this sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony was scheduled to take place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.

Pauling appears in the 2006 novel Visibility by Boris Starling, who later named his son Linus.

Honors and awards

Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career. Following are awards and honors he has received.

Publications

See also

Notes

  1. ^ http://www.adherents.com/people/100_scientists.html
  2. ^ http://www.biomedresearch.net/linuspauling.htm
  3. ^ Marie Curie, John Bardeen and Frederick Sanger are the others. As Watson attests, Pauling also came close to being the discoverer of DNA's structure for which Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins received the prize.
  4. ^ Dunitz, p. 222.
  5. ^ a b "The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information". United States National Library of Medicine. http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
  6. ^ Hager, p. 22.
  7. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 8.
  8. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 1.
  9. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 2.
  10. ^ Hager, p. 21.
  11. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 6.
  12. ^ Hager, p. 24.
  13. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 4.
  14. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 5.
  15. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 12.
  16. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 13.
  17. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 9.
  18. ^ Dunitz, p. 223.
  19. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 17.
  20. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 21.
  21. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 22.
  22. ^ Hager, p. 48.
  23. ^ "Linus Pauling – Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1962/pauling-bio.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  24. ^ Bourgoin, Suzanne M.; Paula K. Byers (1998). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale. Vol. 12, p. 150. ISBN 0787622214.
  25. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 23.
  26. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 24.
  27. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 25.
  28. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 26.
  29. ^ Swanson, Stephen (2000-10-03). "OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library". Oregon State University. http://oregonstate.edu/dept/ncs/newsarch/2000/Oct00/pauling.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-11.
  30. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 29.
  31. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 30.
  32. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 31.
  33. ^ Linus Pauling Institute. "Linus Pauling: A Biographical Timeline". http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/timeline.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  34. ^ "... I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet." Linus Pauling & Daisaku Ikeda (1992). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Jones & Bartlett. pp. 22. ISBN 0867202777.
  35. ^ Tom Hager (December 2004). ""The Langmuir Prize"" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  36. ^ Linus Pauling (March 1932). ""The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another."" (html). Journal of the American Chemical Society. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/papers/1932p.2.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  37. ^ Paulus, John Allen (1995-11-05). "Pauling's Prizes". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05E3DE1739F936A35752C1A963958260&. Retrieved on 2007-12-09.
  38. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Einstein" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page9.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  39. ^ "Linus Pauling". http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Pauling.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-11. "[In] January of 1952, Pauling requested a passport to attend a meeting in England ... The passport was denied because granting it "would not be in the best interest of the United States." He applied again and wrote President Eisenhower, asking him to arrange the issuance of the passport since, "I am a loyal citizen of the United States. I have never been guilty of any unpatriotic or criminal act.""
  40. ^ Linus Pauling (May 1952). "The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/notes/1952a.18.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  41. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Russell/Einstein" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page25.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  42. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Strontium-90" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page26.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  43. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "The Right to Petition" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page27.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  44. ^ Linus Pauling; Edward Teller (1958). "Teller vs. Pauling" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/video/1958v.3.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  45. ^ Linus Pauling (1963-10-10). "Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963." (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/notes/rnb23-100.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  46. ^ "Linus Pauling's DNA Model". http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel/document_view. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  47. ^ "Pauling biography citing State Department's revocation of Pauling's passport in 1952". http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Pauling.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-11.
  48. ^ Hager, Thomas (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684809095. , pp. 414-415
  49. ^ Pauling, Linus; Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer, Ibert Wells (November 1949). "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease". Science. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/blood/papers/1949p.15.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  50. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1951). "Molecular Medicine". Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/blood/pictures/1951s.17.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  51. ^ Cassileth, BR (1998:67). Alternative Medicine Handbook: the Complete Reference Guide to Alternative and Complementary Therapies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co..
  52. ^ "Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy". BC Cancer Agency. February 2000. http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  53. ^ Ewan Cameron M.D.. "Cancer bibliography". Doctoryourself.com. http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_cameron.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  54. ^ a b Chen Q et al. (2007). Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo. Proceedings for the National Academy of Sciences. See reference to citations 5,6, and 7.
  55. ^ Cameron E, Pauling L (1978) Supplemental Ascorbate in the Supportive Treatment of Cancer: Reevaluation of Prolongation of Survival Times in Terminal Human Cancer
  56. ^ Ted Goertzel (1996). "Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project". Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries. http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  57. ^ (2005), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-11366-3, Excerpt from pages 89-111
  58. ^ Mark Levine; Sebastian J. Padayatty, Hugh D. Riordan, Stephen M. Hewitt, Arie Katz, L. John Hoffer (2006-03-28). "Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases". CMA Media. http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/7/937#T217. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  59. ^ "Intravenous Vitamin C Kills Cancer Cells". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.. 2005-09-12. http://www.knowledgeofhealth.com/report.asp?story=Intravenous%20Vitamin%20C%20Kills%20Cancer%20Cells. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  60. ^ Collin, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (2007). Dr. Golem: How to Think about Medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226113671.
  61. ^ "No More War!". Linus Pauling and the Twentieth Century. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20060907091808/http://www.paulingexhibit.org/bio/sec_09.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  62. ^ Pauling, Linus (November 1978). Ralph Pelligra, ed.. ed. "Orthomolecular enhancement of human development" (PDF). Human Neurological Development: Past, Present, and Future. A Joint Symposium Sponsored by NASA/Ames Research Center and the Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential. NASA CP 2063: 47–51. http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf.
  63. ^ Andrew W. Saul; Dr. Abram Hoffer. "Abram Hoffer, M.D., Ph.D. 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication". Doctoryourself.com. http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_hoffer.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  64. ^ Sebastian et al. Vitamin C Pharmacokinetics: Implications for Oral and Intravenous Use (full-text). Annals of Internal Medicine.
  65. ^ Chen Q, Espey M, Krishna M, Mitchell J, Corpe C, Buettner G, Shacter E, Levine M (2005). "Pharmacologic ascorbic acid concentrations selectively kill cancer cells: action as a pro-drug to deliver hydrogen peroxide to tissues". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S a 102 (38): 13604–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506390102. PMID 16157892.
  66. ^ Chen, Q.; Espey, M.G.; Sun, A.Y.; Lee, J.H.; Krishna, M.C.; Shacter, E.; Choyke, P.L.; Pooput, C.; Kirk, K.L.; Buettner, G.R.; Others, (2007). "Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (21): 8749. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702854104. PMID 17502596.
  67. ^ Padayatty S, Riordan H, Hewitt S, Katz A, Hoffer L, Levine M (2006). "Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases". CMAJ 174 (7): 937–42. PMID 16567755.
  68. ^ Assouline S, Miller W (2006). "High-dose vitamin C therapy: renewed hope or false promise?". CMAJ 174 (7): 956–7. PMID 16567756.
  69. ^ Thomas Hager (December 2004). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page46.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  70. ^ Linus Pauling (1928). ""London's paper. General ideas on bonds."" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci3.001.21.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  71. ^ Linus Pauling (1930s). ""Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale"" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci5.001.14.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  72. ^ Linus Pauling (1934-01-06). ""Benzene"" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci2.004.6.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  73. ^ Linus Pauling (1946-07-29). ""Resonance"" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1946a.3.html. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  74. ^ Oregon State Special Collections
  75. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). "The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission". Science. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-026.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  76. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). "The close-packed spheron model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model". Science. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-012.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  77. ^ Pauling, Linus (July 1966). "The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei)". Science. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-048.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  78. ^ Pauling, Linus (December 1967). "Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei". Science. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-068.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  79. ^ Pauling, Linus (November 1969). "Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei". Science. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-075.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  80. ^ Pauling, Linus; Arthur B. Robinson (1975). "Rotating clusters in nuclei". Canadian Journal of Physics. http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-084.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  81. ^ Pauling, Linus (1991). "Transition from one revolving cluster to two revolving clusters in the ground-state rotational bands of nuclei in the lanthanon region". http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-125.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  82. ^ Norman D. Cook, Models of the Atomic Nucleus, 2006, Springer, p. 71.
  83. ^ Linus Pauling Interview - page 9 / 9 - Academy of Achievement
  84. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247.
  85. ^ a b Linus Pauling dies at 93. The Oregonian, August 20, 1994.
  86. ^ Linus C. Pauling. Find A Grave. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
  87. ^ Desiraju, G.R. (2000-11-23). "The all-chemist" (PDF). Nature. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v408/n6811/pdf/408407A0.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  88. ^ "A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry?". ACS Publications. 2003. 750-756. http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/ar030162a. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  89. ^ Moody, Glyn (2002). Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Perseus Books Group. pp. 336. ISBN 0738206709. http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com/perseus/book_detail_redirect.do?imprintCid=BA&isbn=0738206709.
  90. ^ Odegard, Kyle (2008-03-07). "Linus Pauling stamp debuts at university". Gazette-Times. http://www.gtconnect.com/articles/2008/03/07/news/community/3aaa03_pauling.txt.

References

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Nobel Peace Prize laureates

Léon Jouhaux (1951) · Albert Schweitzer (1952) · George Marshall (1953) · United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1954) · Lester B. Pearson (1957) · Georges Pire (1958) · Philip Noel-Baker (1959) · Albert Lutuli (1960) · Dag Hammarskjöld (1961) · Linus Pauling (1962) · International Red Cross and Red Crescent (1963) · Martin Luther King, Jr. (1964) · UNICEF (1965) · René Cassin (1968) · International Labour Organization (1969) · Norman Borlaug (1970) · Willy Brandt (1971) · Henry Kissinger / Le Duc Tho (declined award) (1973) · Seán MacBride / Eisaku Satō (1974) · Andrei Sakharov (1975)
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Nobel Laureates in Chemistry

Edwin McMillan / Glenn T. Seaborg (1951) · Archer Martin / Richard Synge (1952) · Hermann Staudinger (1953) · Linus Pauling (1954) · Vincent du Vigneaud (1955) · Cyril Hinshelwood / Nikolay Semyonov (1956) · Alexander Todd (1957) · Frederick Sanger (1958) · Jaroslav Heyrovský (1959) · Willard Libby (1960) · Melvin Calvin (1961) · Max Perutz / John Kendrew (1962) · Karl Ziegler / Giulio Natta (1963) · Dorothy Hodgkin (1964) · Robert Woodward (1965) · Robert S. Mulliken (1966) · Manfred Eigen / Ronald Norrish / George Porter (1967) · Lars Onsager (1968) · Derek Barton / Odd Hassel (1969) · Luis Federico Leloir (1970) · Gerhard Herzberg (1971) · Christian B. Anfinsen / Stanford Moore / William Stein (1972) · E.O.Fischer / Geoffrey Wilkinson (1973) · Paul Flory (1974) · John Cornforth / Vladimir Prelog (1975)
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Persondata
NAME Pauling, Linus Carl
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION American biochemist and theoretical chemist, anti-nuclear testing campaigner, Nobel laureate
DATE OF BIRTH February 28, 1901
PLACE OF BIRTH Portland, Oregon
DATE OF DEATH August 19, 1994
PLACE OF DEATH Big Sur, California

Categories: American anti-nuclear weapons activists | American anti-war activists | American atheists | American biochemists | American chemists | American humanists | American medical researchers | American pacifists | American Unitarian Universalists | Biophysicists | California Institute of Technology alumni | California Institute of Technology faculty | Deaths from prostate cancer | German Americans | Guggenheim Fellows | Inorganic chemists | International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science members | Irish Americans | National Medal of Science laureates | Nobel laureates in Chemistry | Nobel Peace Prize laureates | Oregon State University alumni | Oregon State University faculty | Orthomolecular medicine | People from Corvallis, Oregon | People from Portland, Oregon | Physical chemists | Presidential Medal for Merit recipients | Priestley Medal | Theoretical chemists | Time magazine Persons of the Year | Vannevar Bush Award recipients | Victims of American political repression | Cancer deaths in California | 1901 births | 1994 deaths

 

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